Resistant Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections
(full update June 2024)
Resistance among gram-negative bacteria is a global health threat.1 Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing organisms are susceptible to a limited number of antibiotics, and are classified as a serious threat by the CDC.2 Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE; The “E” now stands for the order; previously the “E” stood for the family [Enterobacteriaceae].33) are susceptible to very few antibiotics, and are considered an urgent threat by the CDC.2 Risk factors for resistant gram-negative infections can be used to identify patients in whom empiric broad spectrum antibiotic treatment is warranted.33 Treatment failures and/or final culture and sensitivity results can identify CRE, and treatment can be escalated appropriately. It is recommended that infectious diseases specialists be consulted for the management of patients with resistant gram-negative bacterial infections.33 The chart below answers clinical questions about managing resistant gram-negative bacterial infections.
Clinical Question |
Suggested Approach/Pertinent Information |
How common are resistant gram-negative infections in the United States? |
Infections from ESBL-producing organisms were identified in almost 200,000 hospitalized patients and lead to approximately 9,100 deaths in 2017.2
CRE organisms cause about 9,300 infections, leading to about 900 deaths each year.43 In 2021, 2.7% of Enterobacterales isolates from healthcare-associated infections were identified as CRE.3 The CDC classifies carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) as an urgent threat. In 2021, 39.5% of A. baumannii isolates were carbapenem-resistant.56 |
What are risk factors for resistant gram-negative colonization or infection? |
Risk factors for resistant gram-negative infections are similar to those for other nosocomial infections, including:6,7
Additional risk factors specific to ESBL-related infections include:7
Additional risk factors specific to CRE-related infections include:10,11
|
Which organisms are most likely to produce ESBL? |
Only gram-negative organisms are capable of producing ESBL. Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Escherichia coli are the most common organisms that produce ESBL.7 Other gram-negative organisms that may produce ESBL include: Acinetobacter, Burkholderia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Morganella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Serratia, and Shigella species.7-9 |
Which organisms are most likely to be carbapenem resistant in the United States? |
Klebsiella pneumonia, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Escherichia coli are the most common CRE.12 Carbapenem-resistant infections have also been caused by Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterobacter cloacae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.12-15 The most commonly reported carbapenemase is Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC).3,33 This carbapenemase is not limited to Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates.33 Other carbapenemase enzymes include New Delhi MBL (NDM), Verona Integron-Encoded MBL (VIM), Oxacillinase-48-type (OXA-48), and Imipenemase MBL (IMP). These carbapenemase enzymes are more common outside the US, however, they are increasingly reported in the US and are no longer only associated with exposure to healthcare in countries where they are more prevalent.3 |
What are the mechanisms of resistance among gram-negative organisms? |
Entry of antibiotics is limited due to decreased permeability of the bacterial outer membrane.40 Genetic mutations confer resistance through changes to drug binding sites, or by encoding for efflux pumps or loss of porin channels to effectively evade antibiotics.7,40 Bacteria produce enzymes that hydrolyze the beta-lactam ring of beta-lactam antibiotics, or cleave other antibiotics, rendering them ineffective.7,40
|
Which classes of antibiotics remain active against resistant gram-negative organisms? |
ESBL-producing organisms usually maintain susceptibility to:4,7,14,17,18,23,33
CRE-related infections may be susceptible to:12,19,20,23,40
|
Are beta-lactam antibiotics ever appropriate for ESBL-related infections? |
Use of piperacillin/tazobactam in ESBL-related infections is controversial.7,24,25
Use of cefepime in ESBL-related infections is similarly controversial.26-28
The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) recommends to avoid use of piperacillin/tazobactam or cefepime in non-urinary tract infections caused by ESBL, even if they appear susceptible based on culture and sensitivity results.33 See the exception to this in the row below “How should ESBL- and CRE-related lower UTIs (cystitis) be treated.” |
How should ESBL- and CRE-related uncomplicated lower UTIs (cystitis) be treated? |
Uncomplicated lower UTIs (cystitis) may be treated with nitrofurantoin, PO fosfomycin (only when E. coli is the organism, due to resistance with other organisms that can hydrolyze fosfomycin), aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim or carbapenems when C&S shows susceptibility.7,21,22,33 Urinary concentrations of these antibiotics are higher than organism MIC, effectively overcoming resistance. See our chart, Urinary Tract Infections, for more on treating urinary tract infections, including use of nitrofurantoin in patients with kidney impairment.
If either cefepime or piperacillin/tazobactam is as started as empiric therapy for cystitis, the patient is clinically improving, and it is later determined the cystitis is caused by ESBL-Enterobacterales, it is ok to continue therapy.33 |
What regimens are preferred to treat ESBL-related infections other than uncomplicated cystitis? |
Complicated UTIs and pyelonephritis: see our chart, Urinary Tract Infections, for treatment.
Infections outside of the urinary tract may be treated with meropenem, imipenem/cilastatin, or ertapenem.33
Options for oral step-down therapy include sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, levofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin.33 |
What regimens are preferred to treat CRE-related infections other than uncomplicated cystitis?a |
Complicated UTIs and pyelonephritis:
Infections outside of the urinary tract: Monotherapy with ceftazidime/avibactam, meropenem/vaborbactam, or imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam may be an option.12,23,24,33,46-52 Choose therapy based on availability of carbapenemase testing and susceptibilities:
Ceftazidime/avibactam has been used as mono- and combination therapy.12,23,34,46,50,51
Meropenem/vaborbactam has been studied as monotherapy for treatment of suspected or documented CRE infections in the bloodstream, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and urine.35 Imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam has been studied as monotherapy for treatment of documented imipenem-nonsusceptible bacterial infections (i.e., hospital-acquired/ventilator-associated pneumonia, complicated intraabdominal infection, or complicated urinary tract infection). Note that the primary pathogen identified in more than 75% of the patients in the study was Pseudomonas aeruginosa.57 Combination therapy isn’t recommended due to the availability of newer agents active against CRE. If older regimens are needed, combine meds based on the site of the infection for KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae:12
|
How do the newer antibiotics compare to traditional regimens for CRE-related infections? |
Preliminary evidence suggests improved efficacy, safety, and survival outcomes with ceftazidime/avibactam-, meropenem/vaborbactam-, imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam-, plazomicin-, or cefiderocol-containing regimens versus traditional antibiotic combinations, such as one that includes a polymyxin.35,47-49,51,52,57,59
|
What regimens are preferred to treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa with difficult-to-treat resistance (DTR)? |
Multidrug resistant P. aeruginosa: NOT susceptible to one or more antibiotic in three or more classes for which susceptibility is expected: penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and carbapenems.33 DTR P. aeruginosa: NOT susceptible to ANY of the following: piperacillin/tazobactam, ceftazidime, cefepime, aztreonam, meropenem, imipenem/cilastatin, ciprofloxacin, and levofloxacin.33 Treatment options vary based on source of infection. Consider these, accounting for susceptibility and formulary:33
Avoid meropenem/vaborbactam with carbapenem-resistant pseudomonas infections. In vitro data suggests meropenem/vaborbactam does not provide coverage for carbapenem- or beta-lactam-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa.23 P. aeruginosa susceptibility may be more likely with ceftolozane/tazobactam than other agents. This may be because ceftolozane has independent activity against (DTR) P. aeruginosa (i.e., does NOT rely on an inhibitor for susceptibility), unlike ceftazidime and imipenem.33 |
What regimens are preferred to treat CRAB-related infections?a |
The management of CRAB-related infections is particularly difficult due to:33
Preferred regimen for CRAB usually includes ampicillin/sulbactam 9 grams IV q8h (this high-dose regimen may be effective even if C&S show Acinetobacter resistance) in combination with a second antibiotic.33
Sulbactam/durlobactam (Xacduro) is FDA-approved for CRAB pneumonia.36
|
What dosing strategies should be used for resistant gram-negative infections, other than uncomplicated cystitis?a |
Higher doses are used to overcome resistance and improve success rates for ESBL- and CRE-related infections.12
|
What infection control strategies and stewardship practices can help limit the spread of resistant gram-negative infections? |
Strict isolation precautions should be followed for patients with ESBL- or CRE-related infections.11
Indwelling catheters and devices can harbor infection, and should be removed as soon as possible.6,13 Excessive antibiotic use should be addressed by antimicrobial stewardship programs.11
See our toolbox, Antimicrobial Stewardship, for additional infection control strategies. |
- Work with your lab for susceptibility testing. Some labs may only run susceptibility for newer antibiotics if specifically requested to do so.
Abbreviations: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CRAB = carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii; CrCl = creatinine clearance; CRE = carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales; CRRT = continuous renal replacement therapy; C&S = culture and sensitivity; ESBL = extended-spectrum beta-lactamase; HD = hemodialysis; ICU = intensive care unit; IV = intravenously; KPC = Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase; MBL = metallo-beta-lactamase; MIC = minimum inhibitory concentration; PO = by mouth; UTI = urinary tract infection.
Levels of Evidence
In accordance with our goal of providing Evidence-Based information, we are citing the LEVEL OF EVIDENCE for the clinical recommendations we publish.
Level |
Definition |
Study Quality |
A |
Good-quality patient-oriented evidence.* |
|
B |
Inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence.* |
|
C |
Consensus; usual practice; expert opinion; disease-oriented evidence (e.g., physiologic or surrogate endpoints); case series for studies of diagnosis, treatment, prevention, or screening. |
*Outcomes that matter to patients (e.g., morbidity, mortality, symptom improvement, quality of life).
[Adapted from Ebell MH, Siwek J, Weiss BD, et al. Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT): a patient-centered approach to grading evidence in the medical literature. Am Fam Physician 2004;69:548-56. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0201/p548.html.]
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Cite this document as follows: Clinical Resource, Resistant Gram-Negative Infections. Pharmacist’s Letter/Pharmacy Technician’s Letter/Prescriber Insights. June 2024. [400619]